0:00:05.920,0:00:06.481 (Lia Commissar) Hi! This morning 0:00:06.497,0:00:08.768 I'm going to talk about education and[br]neuroscience, 0:00:08.768,0:00:10.641 both generally as the [br]field's developing 0:00:10.957,0:00:14.203 but also, the specific work [br]that we've been doing in this field. 0:00:15.164,0:00:21.330 The Wellcome Trust -- OK -- 0:00:21.453,0:00:23.245 the Wellcome Trust, for those of you[br]who don't know, 0:00:23.245,0:00:26.252 is the second largest charitable [br]foundation globally, 0:00:26.252,0:00:27.508 with the aim of improving health. 0:00:27.570,0:00:31.571 And it does that by funding lots of[br]bio-medical research, but also 0:00:31.571,0:00:33.783 by funding work in the social science[br]and humanities, 0:00:33.783,0:00:36.674 funding lots of education work,[br]doing lots of engagement work 0:00:36.938,0:00:40.332 and also lots of policy work. 0:00:40.332,0:00:43.954 So I'm going to talk through a few things[br]this morning. 0:00:43.954,0:00:46.676 Firstly, what has neuroscience got to do[br]with education? 0:00:47.021,0:00:50.307 What impact is it having on education[br]at the moment? 0:00:50.369,0:00:53.949 The work that we've been doing, and then[br]thinking about the future. 0:00:53.949,0:00:58.430 So, what has neuroscience got to do[br]with education? 0:00:58.430,0:01:01.477 Well, if education is about [br]learning something, 0:01:01.477,0:01:03.637 be it knowledge or a skill, 0:01:03.637,0:01:05.644 and neuroscience is the study of [br]the nervous system and the brain, 0:01:05.644,0:01:08.114 then they're pretty linked, in my opinion. 0:01:08.191,0:01:13.580 And it's not new to kind of talk about[br]the brain, in relation to education. 0:01:13.580,0:01:16.029 People have been discussing this, [br]critiquing it, 0:01:16.029,0:01:17.609 debating it for lots of years. 0:01:17.623,0:01:21.765 There's loads of research papers out there [br]with titles such as 0:01:22.518,0:01:25.683 "A Bridge too far", [br]"Its a Prime time to build a bridge", 0:01:27.239,0:01:31.236 "A two-way path is possible", [br]"Buildng the bridge from both ends." 0:01:31.629,0:01:33.753 So lots of people have been talking [br]about this bridge 0:01:33.753,0:01:35.839 but not many people have been building it. 0:01:35.839,0:01:38.162 And, this is kind of understandable 0:01:38.162,0:01:42.561 because it's probably only really in [br]the last 10 years that neuroscience is, 0:01:42.561,0:01:45.840 the understanding from neuroscience [br]has evolved significantly 0:01:45.840,0:01:49.797 that we can start to think about how [br]it might have implications for the classroom. 0:01:50.471,0:01:54.482 And this is really exciting, [br]and there is lots of potential 0:01:54.482,0:01:56.165 and its really understanding, 0:01:56.165,0:02:00.332 you can understand why teachers, [br]why policy makers, 0:02:00.332,0:02:06.021 why technologists want to start applying [br]some of these ideas to education. 0:02:06.021,0:02:09.278 But my word of warning that will go [br]throughout this presentation 0:02:09.278,0:02:13.633 really is about waiting and doing [br]the research and finding out 0:02:13.633,0:02:16.549 whether these things are actually going [br]to be helpful and impactful 0:02:16.549,0:02:18.424 in the classroom. 0:02:18.424,0:02:20.565 And the other thing that I must say [br]just before I go on 0:02:20.565,0:02:24.796 is that I am not saying in any way that [br]neuroscience alone is the answer 0:02:24.796,0:02:26.581 and is going to solve all our problems 0:02:26.581,0:02:28.987 or can tell us everything [br]about the classroom. 0:02:28.987,0:02:31.988 That's a very complex ecosystem. 0:02:31.994,0:02:37.038 But, neuroscience is [br]a kind of a newish field 0:02:37.047,0:02:40.580 where we can start using that[br]alongside psychology, 0:02:40.580,0:02:44.658 alongside educational research,[br]and alongside teacher's knowledge 0:02:44.663,0:02:48.019 to build something really good [br]for the future 0:02:48.019,0:02:52.602 and see if we can start improving [br]learning in the classroom. 0:02:52.602,0:02:57.895 So, what impact is neuroscience[br]having on education? 0:02:57.895,0:03:01.009 So, we're at an education conference -- 0:03:01.009,0:03:03.110 I thought I'd wait and see[br]what you guys think. 0:03:03.110,0:03:07.685 So, I'm going to put a few statements[br]up on the board, as any good teacher does. 0:03:07.685,0:03:11.152 And what I would like you to do is[br]just simply raise your hand 0:03:11.152,0:03:15.592 if you agree with the statement, [br]if you think it's true. 0:03:15.592,0:03:18.587 So: "We mostly only use 10% of our brain." 0:03:18.587,0:03:20.936 Hands up if you agree. 0:03:20.936,0:03:23.029 OK.[br]I will just show you this: 0:03:23.029,0:03:26.214 These are some stats, I'll show you[br]the paper this comes from in a second. 0:03:26.214,0:03:29.082 This was a survey of teachers [br]in five countries 0:03:29.082,0:03:33.555 and those are the percentages [br]of the teachers that agree. 0:03:33.555,0:03:39.866 Hum -- it's not really working, but[br]I can tell you that this is not true 0:03:39.866,0:03:44.338 -- uh, there we go -- even sat there now,[br]you might think you're not doing very much 0:03:44.338,0:03:47.588 but your brain is still in control[br]of your breathing, 0:03:47.588,0:03:52.129 in control of your heart rate, keeping you[br]standing up, sitting upright, 0:03:52.129,0:03:55.640 perhaps paying attention, maybe not,[br]maybe mind-wandering 0:03:55.640,0:03:58.692 but it's all using your brain,[br]all parts of your brain. 0:03:58.692,0:04:01.294 So that's one of these myths. 0:04:01.294,0:04:05.228 Second one: "Individuals lean better [br]when they receive information 0:04:05.228,0:04:07.539 "in their preferred learning style." 0:04:07.539,0:04:10.734 So visually, by seeing, [br]auditory, by hearing, 0:04:10.734,0:04:12.467 or kinesthetically, by doing things. 0:04:12.467,0:04:17.586 Hands up if you agree with that statement. 0:04:17.586,0:04:19.001 OK. 0:04:19.001,0:04:26.311 You can see, across the board, teachers [br]in lots of countries agree with this. 0:04:26.311,0:04:33.001 (Laughter)[br]Yes. So (she laughs) 0:04:33.001,0:04:36.219 It is true that people have a preference. 0:04:36.219,0:04:39.126 You might prefer to learn something[br]in a particular way, 0:04:39.126,0:04:41.283 you might feel that you are[br]a visual learner, 0:04:41.283,0:04:45.976 and that you learn better in that,[br]by using stuff visually: 0:04:45.976,0:04:49.583 you do have a preference; but researches[br]show that you don't learn any better 0:04:49.583,0:04:56.529 if you are showing the material[br]in that particular way, believe it or not. 0:04:56.529,0:04:57.857 One last one: 0:04:57.857,0:05:01.812 "Differences in hemispheric dominance,[br]left or right brain, can help to explain 0:05:01.812,0:05:04.422 "individual differences amongst learners." 0:05:04.422,0:05:06.283 Hands up if you agree. 0:05:06.283,0:05:08.826 We might start to see a pattern,[br]I don't know. 0:05:08.826,0:05:13.046 (Laughter)[br]So, here is some stats. 0:05:13.046,0:05:16.234 Really high in the UK. 0:05:16.234,0:05:19.167 Again, it's not true. 0:05:19.167,0:05:22.122 If you hear things about integrating[br]the right or left brain, 0:05:22.122,0:05:25.246 or if you hear things about[br]one side of your brain is the logical side 0:05:25.246,0:05:30.303 and the other side is more mathsy --[br]sorry, creative, it's just not true. 0:05:30.303,0:05:33.033 And I'm going to skip the next one. 0:05:33.033,0:05:34.614 ["Regular drinking of caffeinated drinks[br]reduces alertness."] 0:05:34.614,0:05:36.963 But this one is true.[br](Laughter) 0:05:36.963,0:05:39.086 OK, I can tell you a little more about that. 0:05:39.086,0:05:41.338 If you want to see more [br]about these neuromyths, 0:05:41.338,0:05:44.778 This is a really good paper written by[br]Paul Howard Jones last year. 0:05:44.778,0:05:47.002 It got a lot of interest on social media 0:05:47.002,0:05:51.284 and it goes through lots of what[br]these common neuromyths are. 0:05:51.284,0:05:53.088 So, neuromyths:[br]Where do they come from? 0:05:53.088,0:05:55.603 Are they a problem?[br]And what to do about them? 0:05:55.603,0:05:57.754 So, generally they often come from[br]some kind of science 0:05:57.754,0:06:05.058 that's been over- or misinterpreted,[br]and they tend to stick around (excuse me) 0:06:05.058,0:06:07.217 because they are easy to understand or 0:06:07.217,0:06:10.243 easy to kind of implement [br]in the classroom. 0:06:10.243,0:06:11.687 Are they a problem? 0:06:11.687,0:06:16.744 Well, if you think you only use [br]10% of your brain, is that a problem? 0:06:16.744,0:06:19.317 Possibly not, it's not accurate, 0:06:19.317,0:06:22.153 but when I first started teaching[br]about nine years ago, 0:06:22.153,0:06:24.306 and this was common in lots of schools[br]across the UK, 0:06:24.306,0:06:26.277 I'm not sure about in other countries, 0:06:26.277,0:06:29.717 students were asked to fill [br]a questionnaire about how they learned, 0:06:29.717,0:06:31.107 and did they like learning in this way. 0:06:31.107,0:06:35.482 And teachers were given a spreadsheet[br]with students 0:06:35.482,0:06:37.574 and which were their preferred[br]learning styles. 0:06:37.574,0:06:40.147 And teachers were encouraged to make sure[br]that they were providing 0:06:40.147,0:06:44.494 information for those students [br]in that particular way. 0:06:44.494,0:06:46.330 And I'd say that is a bit of a problem, 0:06:46.330,0:06:48.999 because teachers were potentially [br]wasting time 0:06:48.999,0:06:50.832 or feeling that they should be doing[br]something 0:06:50.832,0:06:53.437 that was not actually benefiting [br]the students. 0:06:53.437,0:06:57.949 A positive outcome was that lessons[br]became more diverse, 0:06:57.949,0:07:00.554 ............... (check) about a range of[br]activities 0:07:00.554,0:07:03.547 but at the same time, students would say[br]things like: 0:07:03.547,0:07:07.567 "Miss, I'm not doing this activity[br]because I'm a kinesthetic learner." 0:07:07.567,0:07:10.568 And so students were themselves[br]limiting themselves 0:07:10.568,0:07:14.204 and not getting the benefit of learning[br]in multiple modalities, 0:07:14.204,0:07:15.942 which is the way you learn best, 0:07:15.942,0:07:20.671 by using different ways of learning [br]the same information. 7:19 0:07:20.671,0:07:22.733 So, what to do about them? 0:07:22.733,0:07:27.588 Well, I might come on to that a bit later[br]in what we're going to do. 0:07:27.588,0:07:32.422 So, the research is carrying on, but [br]lots of research in this area 0:07:32.422,0:07:35.928 is still at the stage of it's [br]about cells in a Petri dish 0:07:35.928,0:07:39.889 It might be about finding out about [br]what's going on in animals, 0:07:39.889,0:07:44.105 or very small-scale trials of humans, [br]but maybe in a lab. 0:07:44.105,0:07:46.166 Not much is going on in the classroom. 0:07:46.166,0:07:50.064 And so we set p this initiative, [br]Education Neuroscience Initiative 0:07:50.064,0:07:52.307 with the Education Endowment Foundation, 0:07:52.307,0:07:56.524 who are the What Works Centre of [br]Education in the UK. 0:07:56.524,0:07:58.977 And we did it for two reasons: 0:07:58.977,0:08:03.027 we wanted to build the evidence of [br]what works in education, 0:08:03.027,0:08:04.864 informed by neuroscience, 0:08:04.864,0:08:08.241 and we also wanted to help support [br]teachers and general educators 0:08:08.241,0:08:11.174 with what we do and don't know. (check) 0:08:11.174,0:08:14.486 So, we firstly launched a funding round, 0:08:14.486,0:08:18.218 to get people to apply for money [br]to do research in the space, 0:08:18.218,0:08:23.052 and all the projects had to have some [br]evidence that they will -- that they work, 0:08:23.052,0:08:24.276 some pilot data. 0:08:24.276,0:08:26.049 But they also had to be scalable [br]and affordable, 0:08:26.049,0:08:28.297 so that if we find that [br]these things worked, 0:08:28.297,0:08:31.196 that they could be rolled out, [br]that they could lead to policy changes, 0:08:31.196,0:08:33.671 that they could be available to everybody. 0:08:33.671,0:08:37.954 And there is particular emphasis as well [br]around disadvantaged students. 0:08:37.954,0:08:40.397 We want to do something [br]that would benefit all, 0:08:40.397,0:08:43.106 and try and close the socioeconomic gap. 0:08:43.106,0:08:46.739 And all of our projects are also paired [br]with an independent evaluator. 0:08:46.739,0:08:50.215 So, you have your project team [br]and you also have an evaluation team. 0:08:50.215,0:08:54.822 And that evaluation team helps to shape [br]the methodology that's used, 0:08:54.822,0:08:57.078 make sure it's robust, educationally. 0:08:57.078,0:09:01.355 They also collect some of the first data [br]and they also report on that data first. 0:09:01.355,0:09:05.861 So there is no chance for the project team[br]to maybe overstate claims 0:09:05.861,0:09:09.334 about what they found. 0:09:09.334,0:09:12.691 So we funded these projects [br]and these are all taking place 0:09:12.691,0:09:16.777 in around 50 to 100 schools, [br]each in the UK. 0:09:16.777,0:09:20.374 I won't talk about all of them, [br]but I'll just whiz through a couple. 0:09:20.374,0:09:26.659 Fit to Study is looking at great research [br]around how more vigorous activity 0:09:26.659,0:09:29.168 can influence learning, [br]short- and long-term. 0:09:29.168,0:09:32.958 We know this from lots of research [br]in animals and from small-group studies, 0:09:32.958,0:09:36.600 but nobody has done anything in the UK [br]on this scale. 0:09:36.600,0:09:39.889 And so we're looking at changing [br]what happens in P.E. lessons, 0:09:39.889,0:09:44.488 and then measuring the short- and [br]long-term outcomes of those students. 0:09:44.488,0:09:48.001 Teen Sleep has had a certain media coverage. 0:09:48.001,0:09:50.442 And that's looking at we know, [br]researchers know, 0:09:50.442,0:09:51.730 neuroscientists will tell you, 0:09:51.730,0:09:54.948 we know that teens have [br]a different sleep-wake cycle, 0:09:54.948,0:09:58.070 their circadian rhythm is altered [br]by a couple of hours. 0:09:58.070,0:10:00.199 So they don't feel tired in the evenings, 0:10:00.199,0:10:02.217 it's really hard to get them up [br]in the morning, 0:10:02.217,0:10:05.315 they are not fit and ready [br]to start learning early in the morning. 0:10:05.315,0:10:08.629 So we're studying, at a late school start [br]time against a sleep education program, 0:10:08.629,0:10:12.616 where we just teach them about [br]the importance of their sleep, 0:10:12.616,0:10:16.511 how to get good sleep, about [br]using technology just before bed 0:10:16.511,0:10:20.021 and about how that might affect [br]their sleep -- not in a positive way -- 0:10:20.021,0:10:27.136 and looking again [br]at their academic outcomes. 0:10:27.136,0:10:30.039 These are two projects[br]which are both in primary schools. 0:10:30.039,0:10:33.990 They're training very young children:[br]one, a different way to learn reading, 0:10:33.990,0:10:39.532 one, about training their inhibitions[br]that they're better equipped 0:10:39.532,0:10:42.263 when they learn science and maths,[br]when they come across 0:10:42.263,0:10:47.669 these kind of counter-intuitive ideas. 0:10:47.669,0:10:51.238 Engaging the brain's reward system[br]from Paul Howard Jones. 0:10:51.238,0:10:56.494 This one is maybe of particular interest[br]because it's taking ideas from gaming, 0:10:56.494,0:10:59.864 the idea of why games are so engaging[br]and motivating. 0:10:59.864,0:11:04.764 Neuroscientists have discovered[br]it's this idea of uncertain rewards, 0:11:04.764,0:11:08.852 so not the consistency that we[br]see in schools around the world 0:11:08.852,0:11:11.262 of you get something right,[br]you get a point, 0:11:11.262,0:11:13.772 but you get something right[br]and you can game that point. 0:11:13.772,0:11:16.095 You might double it.[br]You might get nothing. 0:11:16.095,0:11:19.188 And they've shown that[br]that ramps up dopamine 0:11:19.188,0:11:23.977 in your brain and the rewards system[br]makes it very engaging, motivating, 0:11:23.977,0:11:29.060 and hopefully, a very teachable moment[br]for students. 0:11:29.060,0:11:33.826 And the last one is spaced learning,[br]and this is being actually led by 0:11:33.826,0:11:38.140 a school in collaboration [br]with neuroscientists and psychologists. 0:11:38.140,0:11:41.716 And they're looking at ideas from[br]neuroscience and psychology 0:11:41.716,0:11:43.937 and trying to work out what really[br]works in the classroom 0:11:43.937,0:11:49.443 in terms of repeated learning and what[br]the spaces are between that learning. 0:11:49.443,0:11:51.082 So that's just a quick oversight.[br] 0:11:51.082,0:11:54.199 If you want more information,[br]I'm happy to talk about it. 0:11:54.199,0:11:57.843 Um, very quickly I'll mention [br]the Education Endowment Foundation 0:11:57.843,0:12:02.381 has a very useful toolkit that[br]talks about different interventions. 0:12:02.381,0:12:05.146 It talks about the cost of those [br]interventions 0:12:05.146,0:12:10.486 and the level of the evidence[br]and how effective it is. 0:12:10.486,0:12:13.385 And they've got a set of projects[br]all around digital technologies 0:12:13.385,0:12:16.472 which you might be interested in. 0:12:16.472,0:12:18.568 So, that's the research. 0:12:18.568,0:12:20.365 We have to sit and wait now[br]for four years 0:12:20.365,0:12:23.591 to find out how some of the outcomes[br]of some of those studies, 0:12:23.591,0:12:25.198 what they'll be. 0:12:25.198,0:12:27.036 And we're just as interested to find out [br]if they're effective as if they're not, 0:12:27.036,0:12:28.774 because we'll then know to say[br]to teachers, "Don't bother changing 0:12:28.774,0:12:35.341 "your school start time.[br]It has no impact." 0:12:35.341,0:12:37.043 So what we're doing. 0:12:37.043,0:12:39.814 We're trying to support teachers[br]with what we know 0:12:39.814,0:12:42.259 because we don't want these [br]neuro-myths being perpetuated. 0:12:42.259,0:12:46.635 We think teachers need to be empowered[br]with really what we do know. 0:12:46.635,0:12:50.596 So we did something earlier this year,[br]a very quick, set up very quickly. 0:12:50.596,0:12:52.849 And it was an online event where[br]we had neuroscientists 0:12:52.849,0:12:54.559 and psychologists online. 0:12:54.559,0:12:56.969 And teachers could log on and[br]ask them any questions 0:12:56.969,0:13:01.347 about the brain or learning. 0:13:01.347,0:13:05.364 And we had about 7,000 people[br]engaged with it, 0:13:05.364,0:13:07.072 but we know that that's not enough. 0:13:07.072,0:13:11.772 So what we're doing is we're currently[br]crowdsourcing information 0:13:11.772,0:13:15.834 from neuroscientists, psychologist,[br]educational academics across the globe. 0:13:15.834,0:13:18.757 And we're going to develop, hopefully,[br]some really good resources 0:13:18.757,0:13:22.434 for teachers that give them a summary[br]of the research area, 0:13:22.434,0:13:26.843 be it reward, motivation, about [br]learning differences. 0:13:26.843,0:13:30.540 But it will also give them an idea[br]of how developed that research is. 0:13:30.540,0:13:34.631 Is it just in cells in a lab or is it[br]being tested in the classroom? 0:13:34.631,0:13:39.463 And finally, it gives them also some[br]other reputable sources of information 0:13:39.463,0:13:42.743 to go to, so that people are [br]finding out about research 0:13:42.743,0:13:46.313 and scientific findings are factual, [br]hopefully. 0:13:46.313,0:13:48.406 And then we're gonna do another[br]online event where we get 0:13:48.406,0:13:51.173 neuroscientists, psychologists,[br]educational academics. 0:13:51.173,0:13:54.674 And hopefully, by enabling this[br]conversation, 0:13:54.674,0:13:57.551 scientific findings won't be over-[br]or misinterpreted. 0:13:57.551,0:14:00.410 People can ask the questions[br]about the research. 0:14:00.410,0:14:03.054 If you want to be involved in that,[br]follow us on Twitter. 0:14:03.054,0:14:05.753 Find out what we're doing. 0:14:05.753,0:14:08.133 So, the future, very quickly. 0:14:08.133,0:14:11.137 There were a couple of journals[br]already in this space: 0:14:11.137,0:14:14.253 Mind, Brain, and Education and [br]Trends in Neuroscience and Education. 0:14:14.253,0:14:16.220 Two more are coming out[br]this and next year. 0:14:16.220,0:14:22.336 This is very much a developing,[br]building area of research. 0:14:22.336,0:14:25.448 The Education Endowment [br]Foundation did a lit review, 0:14:25.448,0:14:28.837 so this paper gives lots of ideas [br]about all the bits of areas 0:14:28.837,0:14:32.853 of neuroscience that could be[br]applied to education, 0:14:32.853,0:14:36.526 the distance from the classroom,[br]and how solid that evidence is. 0:14:36.526,0:14:39.227 So you can find out a bit more there. 0:14:39.227,0:14:41.418 We also had a phone call[br]with the White House earlier this year. 0:14:41.418,0:14:42.804 They're very interested. 0:14:42.804,0:14:44.866 They're working out what they[br]should be doing in this space. 0:14:44.866,0:14:49.562 So it's very exciting but early stages. 0:14:49.562,0:14:52.324 Um, so more about the future. 0:14:52.324,0:14:55.098 Quickly flipped to my notes [br]cause I can't remember all of this. 0:14:55.098,0:14:57.868 There's lots of interesting areas[br]that are very promising 0:14:57.868,0:15:01.798 in this field of research: 0:15:01.798,0:15:04.268 things about stimulation [br]of young children 0:15:04.268,0:15:08.331 and how that actually has[br]a huge impact on their development. 0:15:08.331,0:15:12.348 And that might have big implications[br]in lower and middle income countries. 0:15:12.348,0:15:16.659 Recognizing that teenagers and[br]adolescence is a very distinct time, 0:15:16.659,0:15:18.754 and they might need different [br]things in terms of 0:15:18.754,0:15:23.494 to support their learning[br]compared to adults. 0:15:23.494,0:15:26.838 We are learning lots more about[br]reward, motivation, attention, 0:15:26.838,0:15:29.992 about neuroplasticity, [br]how our brains are very plastic 0:15:29.992,0:15:32.697 and how they can continue to learn[br]throughout life, 0:15:32.697,0:15:36.524 and how that actual cognitive demand[br]on your brain might be good 0:15:36.524,0:15:42.963 at staving off neurological[br]degenerative diseases later in life. 0:15:42.963,0:15:45.726 There's work around fostering [br]better creativity, 0:15:45.726,0:15:48.370 around specifics in maths, English,[br]and science, 0:15:48.370,0:15:51.493 the impact of stress on learning, 0:15:51.493,0:15:54.327 earlier screening for learning disorders, 0:15:54.327,0:15:58.738 and hopefully also, this will become[br]something that is much more embedded 0:15:58.738,0:16:02.243 and ingrained in teacher training. 0:16:02.243,0:16:07.292 So very quickly, the issues I think,[br]are that research takes time. 0:16:07.292,0:16:10.225 We shouldn't over-interpret [br]in individual studies. 0:16:10.225,0:16:15.731 And this translation is a new[br]work-in-progress. 0:16:15.731,0:16:19.851 But there's loads of potential,[br]lots of exciting opportunities. 0:16:19.851,0:16:22.874 But we need multi-disciplinary [br]teams working on this, 0:16:22.874,0:16:26.135 including educational technologists. 0:16:26.135,0:16:28.409 We need to get good information[br]out to teachers. 0:16:28.409,0:16:31.214 We also need to give them the tools[br]to ask the right questions 0:16:31.214,0:16:34.367 so that they can ask what [br]things are based on, 0:16:34.367,0:16:37.066 of their studies, has research been done. 0:16:37.066,0:16:40.837 And we might end up with some[br]things that lead to 0:16:40.837,0:16:42.897 some very interesting policy changes. 0:16:42.897,0:16:44.852 But that's a few years down the line. 0:16:44.852,0:16:48.304 So I'll just leave you with this quote[br]which I quite liked. 0:16:48.304,0:16:52.329 I won't read it.[br]I'll let you read it. 0:16:57.120,0:16:58.928 Thank you very much. 0:16:58.928,0:17:01.594 (applause)